Solid state device

ABSTRACT

A system that incorporates teachings of the present disclosure may include, for example, a solid-state selector having a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with one or more molecules surrounded by ions, a solid state conductive structure doped with impurities having one or more through-holes extending between two surfaces of the solid state conductive structure positioned within the liquid medium of the vessel, a voltage source coupled to the solid state conductive structure to selectively stimulate the ions surrounding the one or more molecules to pass through the one or more through-holes. Additional embodiments are disclosed.

CROSS REFERENCE

The present application claims the benefit of priority to U.S.Provisional Application No. 60/975,774 filed on Sep. 27, 2007, which ishereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under CCR 02-10843awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), andPHS1-R01-HG003713-01 awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH).The government has certain rights in this invention.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates generally to solid state devices.

BACKGROUND

Proteinaceous nanopores have been studied for the past decade for theiressential role in biology as nanoscale channels regulating the ion flowthrough cell membranes as well as exhibiting ion selectivity. Propertiesof the track-etched membranes have been studied in comparison to theproperties of the various biological channels. In the past few years,artificial nanopores in dielectric membranes etched by high-energy ionor electron beams [1,2] have been proposed as a substitute to biologicalion channels [3-5]. However, such membranes are electrically insulatingand do not provide tunable electrostatic control of the ionconcentration inside or the ion flow through the nanopore. Recently,Karnik et al. [6] experimentally demonstrated the metallic gate-voltagemodulation of ions and molecules concentration in a long channel with ananoscale diameter to control the ionic conductance. Gold nanotubes withfully controlled ionic selectivity were reported in ref [7]. The ionselectivity was controlled by applying voltage to the tubes. Also, itwas suggested that nanopores in n⁺-Si membrane can be used as an ionfilter by applying a voltage difference between the semiconductor andthe electrolyte [8].

Similar to voltage-gated ion channels that belong to a class oftransmembrane ion channels activated by changes in the electricalpotential difference near the channel, the presence of a surface chargein a solid-state membrane is central for the use of nanopores insingle-molecule detection, ion/protein filtering [8], and potentially inDNA sequencing [9-11]. While the surface charge of biological channelscan be positive, negative, or spatially distributed in the pore tooperate the “gating” mechanism interrupting the flow of molecules, wateror ions, the surface charge in solid-state nanopores is usually negativeand results from the fabrication process [9]. In this context, conicalnanopores in polymer membranes with various (negative) surface chargeshave been investigated as ion rectifiers [12]. Meanwhile, a microfluidicfield effect transistor operating by surface charge modulation in an ionchannel has been proposed [13], and theoretical modeling of iontransport in a nanofluidic diode and a bipolar transistor has beendeveloped [14].

There is versatility in the use of semiconductor membranes incontrolling the electrolyte charge in a nanopore [15]: unlike dielectricmembranes that exhibit negative surface charges inducing positive ioncharges at the nanopore surface, n-doped semiconductor membranes canattract either positive or negative ions at the nanopore surfacedepending on the amount of positive dopant charge in the depletion layerof the n-type semiconductor. Moreover, the semiconductor membrane can beconnected to a voltage source to modulate the nanopore channel charge.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A depicts an illustrative embodiment of a geometry of the modelednanopore in a solid-state membrane. The center X-Y cross-section isshown (the center Y-Z cross-section is similar). Two cuts S₁ and S₂through the structure are indicated. S₁, is taken at the center of thenanopore, while S₂ is taken across the membrane, and is aligned with thepore axis. The drawing is not to scale;

FIG. 1B depicts an illustrative embodiment of a biological channel in apolarized membrane;

FIG. 2A depicts an illustrative embodiment of an electrostatic potentialacross the membrane along S₂ for difference surface charge densitiesσ₁=0, σ₂=−0.256 C/m², σ₃=−0.076 C/m² and σ₄=−0.128 C/m²;

FIG. 2B depicts an illustrative embodiment of a potential in thenanopore along S₁ for the same charge densities as in FIG. 2A;

FIG. 2C depicts an illustrative embodiment of a potential in thenanopore along S, for different n-Si side doping densities N_(d) ^(n),with fixed doping density on the p-Si side of the membrane N_(d)^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and surface charge density σ₂;

FIG. 2D depicts an illustrative embodiment of a potential in thenanopore along S₁ for different p-Si side doping densities N_(d) ^(p),with N_(d) ^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and σ₂. Solution concentration is [KC1]=1Min all cases;

FIGS. 3A-B depict illustrative embodiments of an anion (Cl⁻) and cation(K⁺) concentrations in the electrolyte solution in the nanopore centerat S₁ of a p-n membrane for two membrane biases: (A) V_(n)=−1 V andV_(p)=0 V; and (B) V_(n)=−1 V and V_(p)=0 V. Simulation parameters:σ=−0.0256 C/m² N_(d) ^(n)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³, N_(d) ^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³, [KC1]=0.1M;

FIGS. 4A-C depict illustrative embodiments of an electrostatic potentialin the nanopore along S₁ for [KC1]=0.1 M and surface charge densityσ=−0.0256 C/m² for a p-n membrane (doping densities are N_(d)^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and N_(d) ^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³), for all solid linesV_(p)=−1 V, for all dashed lines V_(p)=1V: (A) V_(n)=−1V (B) V_(n)=0V,and (C) V_(n)=1 V; (D) Electrostatic potential in the nanopore for an-Si membrane, N_(d) ^(n)=2×10²⁰ cm³, all other parameters are as in thep-n membrane case, for various applied to the membrane potential biases;

FIG. 5 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a sketch of the nanopore ina p-n membrane with one of the possible electrostatic potentialvariations in the nanopore. Positive current flows from the left to theright;

FIGS. 6A-F depict illustrative embodiments of an electrostatic potentialin the nanopore along cross-section S₁ for various membrane biases.[KC1]=0.01 M and surface charge density σ=−0.0256 C/m² for p-n membrane(doping densities are N_(d) ^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and N_(d) ^(p)2×10²⁰ cm⁻³).Electrolyte bias V=0. Membrane n- and p-layer bias potentials areindicated in legend as [n/p]. (Center, A-F) Positive and negative chargedistributions in the nanopore along cross-section S₁ for the same p-nmembrane biases. Note the log scale. (Right, A-F) Current-voltagecharacteristics calculated for the same p-n membrane biases;

FIG. 7A depicts an illustrative embodiment of an ion selectivity;

FIG. 7B depicts an illustrative embodiment of an ion conductance ratio.FIGS. 7A-B are calculated for the electrostatic potentials presented inFIGS. 6A-F for the same system parameters;

FIG. 8 depicts an illustrative embodiment of a schematic of the devicegeometry: xy cross-section through the center of the device. The drawingis not to scale;

FIGS. 9A-B depict illustrative embodiments of a contour plot of ionconcentration in the electrolyte and mobile charges in the membrane fora surface charge of −0.064 C m⁻², a doping concentration N_(d)^(p)=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and an ion concentration of 1 M. FIG. 9A corresponds toanion and electron concentrations. FIG. 9B corresponds to cation andhole concentrations;

FIGS. 9C-D depict illustrative embodiments of a potential profile atX_(c) along the Y-direction FIG. 9C; and at Y_(c) (FIG. 9D red curve)and Y₁ (FIG. 9D blue curve) along the X-direction;

FIGS. 10A-B depict illustrative embodiments of mobility profiles atdifferent positions in the channel: (a) along the center plane of thedevice Y_(c) for different δ varying by unitary step from δ=3 Å to δ=7 Åand γ=1 (b) along Y₁ near the wall for γ varying by unitary step fromγ=1 to γ=5 and δ=5;

FIGS. 11A-D depict illustrative embodiments of an average volumicconcentration of K⁺ (circle) and Cl⁻ (square) and insets: β_(c), versusvoltage applied: FIG. 12A for a surface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻², ionconcentration of 1 M, FIG. 12B for a surface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻², adoping concentration N_(d) ⁺=5×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and ion concentration of 1 M,FIG. 12C for a surface charge of −0.096 Cm⁻² and ion concentration of 1M, FIG. 12D for a surface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻² and ion concentration of0.1 M; and

FIGS. 12A-D depict illustrative embodiments of a conductance of K⁺(circle) and C1⁻ (square) ions and insets: β_(G) versus voltage applied:FIG. 12A for a surface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻², an ion concentration of 1M, FIG. 12B for a surface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻², a doping concentrationN_(d) ⁺=5×10²⁰ cm⁻³ and ion concentration of 1 M, FIG. 12C for a surfacecharge of −0.096 Cm⁻² and ion concentration of 1 M, FIG. 12D for asurface charge of −0.064 Cm⁻² and ion concentration of 0.1 M.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

One embodiment of the present disclosure entails a solid-state selectorhaving a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with one or more moleculessurrounded by ions, a solid state conductive structure doped withimpurities having one or more through-holes extending between twosurfaces of the solid state conductive structure positioned within theliquid medium of the vessel, and a voltage source coupled to the solidstate conductive structure to selectively stimulate the ions surroundingthe one or more molecules to pass through the one or more through-holes.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure entails a solid-stateselector having a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with one or moremolecules surrounded by ions, and a solid state conductive structurehaving a one or more through-holes extending between first and secondsurfaces of the solid state conductive structure positioned within theliquid medium of the vessel. The first surface can be doped with ann-type impurity, and the second surface can be doped with a p-typeimpurity. A first voltage source can be coupled to a first portion ofthe solid state conductive structure doped with the n-type impurity. Asecond voltage source can be coupled to a second portion of the solidstate conductive structure doped with the p-type impurity. The first andsecond voltage sources can selectively stimulate the ions surroundingthe one or more molecules to pass through the one or more through-holes.

Yet another embodiment of the present disclosure entails a solid-statedevice having a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with one or moremolecules surrounded, a diode having one or more through-holes extendingbetween first and second surfaces of the diode positioned within theliquid medium of the vessel, a first voltage source coupled to an anodeterminal of the diode, and a second voltage source coupled to a cathodeterminal of the diode. The first and second voltage sources can bias thediode to selectively stimulate the ions surrounding the one or moremolecules to pass through the one or more through-holes.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure entails solid-stateselector having a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with anions andcations, a solid state conductive structure doped with impurities havingone or more through-holes extending between two surfaces of the solidstate conductive structure positioned within the liquid medium of thevessel, a voltage source coupled to the solid state conductive structureto selectively stimulate the anions and cations to pass through the oneor more through-holes.

Yet another embodiment of the present disclosure entails selectivelystimulating one or more molecules to pass through one or morethrough-holes of a solid state conductive structure by applying avoltage to said structure.

Membrane Model. A nanopore-membrane structure geometry is shownschematically in FIGS. 1A-1B and consists of two 12 nm Si layers ofdifferent doping: the top layer is n-doped (typically N_(d) ^(n)=2×10²⁰cm⁻³) and the bottom layer is p-doped (typically N_(d) ^(n)=2×10²⁰cm⁻³). The nanopore in this solid-state membrane has a double-conicalshape with a 1 nm diameter in the narrowest region and 6 nm diameteropening on each side of the pore as a result of the electron beamfabrication process, [9] but similar conclusions are expected fornanopores of more regular shape, e.g., cylindrical. The whole surface ofthe nanopore-membrane is covered by a 8 Å surface layer of SiO₂containing a fixed negative charge σ. The surface charge density wasvaried at first, but unless otherwise indicated, the calculations areperformed for σ=−0.0256 C/m². The membrane is immersed in an electrolyteKC1 solution, with a concentration varying from 0.01M to 1M. Eachmaterial is characterized by its relative permittivity, i.e.,∈_(SiO)=11.7, ∈_(SiO2)=3.9. The dielectric constant of the electrolytesolution is chosen ∈_(electrolyte)=78.

To obtain an ion charge distribution in the nanopore, the Poissonequation is solved self-consistently by a multigrid method in theelectrolyte-membrane system, assuming the ions in the electrolyte arefully dissociated and obey the Boltzmann distribution, whereas electronsand holes in the semiconductor are governed by the Fermi-Diracstatistics. The model details are described in refs [3,15]. Virtualsolid-state parameters can be used for a solution, which enables one toformulate an all-semiconductor model for the charge and electricpotential in the electrolyte and solid-state materials [17]. Theelectrolyte/solid-state and semiconductor/oxide interfaces are modeledby introducing a conduction band offset between materials at theirinterfaces, i.e.: E_(c) ^(SiO2)−E_(c) ^(Si)=3.2 eV, E_(c)^(solution)−E_(c) ^(Si)=−0.3 eV. The bias potential applied to themembrane is modeled with respect to the electrolyte by varying thequasi-Fermi levels of the Si n- (V_(n)) and p- (V_(p)) sides of themembrane separately over the −1 to 1 V range.

3D Electrostatic Potential. FIG. 2A shows a potential variation(“built-in” potential) inside the membrane along cross-section S₂ (FIG.1A) for different densities of negative surface charges. No bias isapplied to the membrane, so that there is no potential variation in theelectrolyte far from the membrane, which was set to 0 V for all studiedelectrolyte concentrations. The potential is positive on the n-side, andnegative on the p-side of the membrane. Strong negative surface charges(σ₃ and σ₄) are manifested as two sharp drops in the potential profileat the top (y=16 nm) and the bottom (y=38 nm) surfaces of the membrane.FIG. 2B shows the potential variation in the nanopore along the poreaxis (S₁, FIG. 1A) for different densities of negative surface charges.Here, the potential maximum decreases and the potential minimum deepensas the negative surface charge density increases. Thus, strong negativesurface charges (σ₃ and σ₄) fully offset the positive dopant charge onthe n-Si side of the membrane at considered doping density. The increaseof the doping density on the n-side of the membrane boosts the potentialmaximum on the n-side, whereas the potential minimum on the p-sideshrinks (FIG. 2C). The increase of the doping density on the p-sideresults in the potential minimum enhancement (FIG. 2D).

Parts C and D of FIG. 2 indicate that to obtain the maximum potentialvariation along the pore axis (condition that leads to the strongestcurrent rectification), the doping density on both n-Si and p-Si sidesof the membrane need to be maximized. Hence, the highest potential peakis achieved for the maximum doping density N_(d) ^(n)=1×10²¹ cm⁻³ on then-side (FIG. 2C), whereas, on the p-side, the deepest minimum is reachedfor the maximum doping density N_(d) ^(p)=1×10²¹ cm⁻³ (FIG. 2D).

In FIGS. 3A-3B, anion and cation concentrations at the nanopore centerare shown for a solution concentration [KC1]=0.1M for two membranebiases. The first case (n-Si biased at V_(n)=−1 V, p-Si at V_(p), =0 V,and electrolyte at V=0 V) is characterized by a single potential minimumin the pore, thus resulting in accumulation of cations in the nanoporecenter (FIG. 3A). The second case (V_(n)=−1 V, p-Si at V_(p),=0 V, andelectrolyte at V=0 V) gives rise to a potential profile with two extremaof opposite sign in the pore, which results in a dipolar ion charge inthe pore: anions on the n-Si side and cations on the p-Si side of themembrane (FIG. 3B).

The potential profiles for a range of membrane biases are displayed inFIGS. 4A-C for a p-n membrane with typical material parameters and[KC1]=0.1M. For comparison, the potential profiles of a n-Si membranewith the same characteristics and a range of applied membrane biases areshown in FIG. 4D. Unlike the electrostatic potential profile of the n-Simembrane that exhibits a single potential extremum, i.e., eitherpositive or negative, for all considered membrane biases, the potentialalong the channel in a p-n membrane produces either a single dominantmaximum, a single dominant minimum, or two extrema (one minimum and onemaximum) as a function of applied bias between the n- and p-layers. Thisspecificity of the p-n membrane to produce asymmetric potentiallandscape in the channel is directly related to the ionic currentrectification properties of the nanopores, as will be discussed in alater section.

Typical potential variations in the pore are ≧50 mV (FIGS. 4A-C), whichis larger than the thermal voltage kT/e˜25 mV; one can expect largervariations at lower ion concentrations [KC1]<0.1M due to reducedscreening of the nanopore walls by ions and, consequently, improvedselectivity and rectification function.

Current-Voltage Characteristics. To calculate the current-voltagecharacteristics of the electrolyte as a function of the potentiallandscape in the nanopore, an electrodiffusion model can be used forionic transport similar to [18]. FIG. 5 shows a schematic profile of thepotential with two extrema of opposite signs in the pore along the S,cross-section. The external and internal pore solution concentrationsare connected through the following Donnan equilibrium conditions:

$\begin{matrix}{{c_{i}( d_{1} )} = {c_{i,L}{\exp( {{- \frac{z_{i}F}{RT}}\Delta\;\phi_{L}} )}}} & (1) \\{{c_{i}( d_{2} )} = {c_{i,R}{\exp( {{- \frac{z_{i}F}{RT}}\Delta\;\phi_{R}} )}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$where z_(i) is the charge number of species i. C_(i,L) and C_(i,R)denote species i concentration of electrolyte solution on the left andthe right of the nanopore, correspondingly. Similar notation is used forthe potential φ: φ_(L) and φ_(R) are potentials on the left and on theright side of the membrane (they are equal when no driving bias isapplied), whereas φ(d₁) and φ(d₂) are potentials at the coordinates x=d₁and x=d₂ inside the pore, correspondingly. Δφ_(L)=φ(d₁)−φ_(L) andΔφ_(R)=φ_(R)−φ(d₂) are the Donnan potential drops through the left andright interfaces, respectively, and Δφ_(D)=φ(d₂)−φ(d₁) is the diffusionpotential in the pore. The potential differences Δφ_(L), Δφ_(D), andΔφ_(R) are determined directly from the calculated potential profiles inthe nanopore.

The flux J_(i) of species i through the nanopore can be described by theNernst-Planck equations

$\begin{matrix}{J_{i} = {{{- D_{i}}\frac{\mathbb{d}c_{i}}{\mathbb{d}x}} - {z_{i}D_{i}c_{i}\frac{F}{RT}\frac{\mathbb{d}\phi}{\mathbb{d}x}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$where D_(i) is the diffusion coefficient of species i in the poresolution, and constants F, R, and T have their usual meaning. The totalelectrical current I passing through the nanopore under the appliedelectrolyte bias V=φ_(L)−φ_(R) (see potential profile in FIG. 5 asdashed line between the two sides of the membrane) is given by

$\begin{matrix}{I = {F\;\pi\; r^{2}{\sum\limits_{i}{z_{i}J_{i}}}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$and the bias potential difference applied to the system can be writtenV=−(Δφ_(L)(V)+Δφ_(D)(V)+Δφ_(R)(V))  (5)

Equations 3, 4, and 5 with boundary conditions (eqs 1,2) can be used toobtain analytical expressions of ionic fluxes when considering theconstant field approximation between coordinates x=d₁ and x=d₂

$\begin{matrix}{J_{i} = {\frac{z_{i}F}{RT}{\frac{D_{i}\Delta\;\phi_{D}}{( {d_{2} - d_{1}} )}\lbrack \frac{{{c_{i}( d_{1} )}{\exp( {{- z_{i}}F\;\Delta\;{\phi_{D}/{RT}}} )}} - {c_{i}( d_{2} )}}{1 - {\exp( {{- z_{i}}F\;\Delta\;{\phi_{D}/{RT}}} )}} \rbrack}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

By assuming that the potential drops Δφ_(L) and Δφ_(R) at the left andright interface do not change with applied bias, as in biologicalchannels, the I-V characteristics can be obtained by substitutingΔφ_(D)(V)=Δφ_(D)(V=0)−V in the right-hand side of eq 6 withc_(S,L)=c_(S,R)=C₀=0.01M on each side of the membrane; D_(K) ⁺=1.95×10⁻⁵cm²/s, D_(Cl)=2.03×10⁻⁵ cm²/s can be used for the diffusion coefficientsof potassium and chlorine ions, respectively. Once the total electricalcurrent is calculated, the nanopore conductance G=dI/dV and the ionselectivity S=|(G_(Cl−G) _(K))/(G_(Cl)+G_(K))| in the nanopore arereadily obtained.

Ion Current Rectification and Filtering. FIGS. 6A-F left column showsthe electrostatic potential profiles in the nanopore for [KC1]=0.01M atdifferent biases between the n-Si and p-Si sides of the semiconductormembrane at electrolyte bias V=0. The membrane potential biases V_(n(p))vary from −1 V to 1 V with respect to the electrolyte. For this lowmolar [KC1] concentration, the potential variations in the nanopore aredramatic, with up to 200 mV swing magnitude. The corresponding positiveand negative charge distribution as well as current-voltagecharacteristics are shown in FIGS. 6A-F center and right columns,correspondingly. It is illustrated that, as a function of the voltageacross the p-n membrane, the I-V characteristics behavior varies fromquasi-ohmic (i.e., FIG. 6C right column with V_(n)=−0.5 V, V_(p)=1 V) todiode-like, with vanishing leakage current at V>0 (i.e., FIG. 6F rightcolumn with V_(n)=1 V, V_(p)=0 V)

In this configuration, the ohmic behavior with the largest conductanceis attributed to a potential profile with a single minimum of weakamplitude in the nanopore (FIG. 6C), while the sharpest diode-likecharacteristic corresponds to an anti-symmetric sine-like potentialprofile of large amplitude (FIG. 6F). All intermediate potentialprofiles result in asymmetric I-V characteristics for which theconductance at V<0 is always larger than the conductance at positiveelectrolyte bias V>0. The closer the potential profile to a sine-likeshape, the better the rectification. The lower the potential amplitude,the closer the ohmic behavior. Correspondingly, the more symmetric thecharge distribution with respect to the nanopore center, the “moreohmic” the current (FIGS. 6A-6C). Alternatively, the more asymmetric thecharge distribution, the more rectified the current (FIG. 6D-6F). Thefact that the high conductance regime is at negative electrolyte bias isdue to the p-n membrane configuration for which the n-layer is on thesame side as the positive solution electrode.

FIG. 7A plots the selectivity S of the nanopore as a function ofδ=Δφ_(L)−Δφ_(R) at different membrane p- and n-layer biases. It can beobserved that the selectivity S≈0 when δ=0, which corresponds to ananti-symmetric (sine-like) shape potential (rectification condition)(FIG. 5), whereas the selectivity increases with the absolute value of δand even reaches S≈1 for δ=−200 mV (conditions far from rectification).FIG. 7B shows the relative ionic conductance G_(Cl)/G_(K) plotted in logscale as a function of δ. It can be seen that the relative conductanceincreases exponentially with δ, which is consistent with the fluxexpression (eq 6). The low selectivity regime with δ≈0 corresponds to arelative conductance close to unity. The left-hand sides of both FIGS.7A-7B with δ<0 correspond to high selectivity and high conductance forpositive K⁺ ions because G_(Cl)/G_(K)<<0, while the right-hand sides ofthe FIGS. 7A-7B plots with δ>0 correspond to high selectivity and highconductance for negative Cl⁻ ions because G_(Cl)/G_(K)>>0.

The membranes under biases that result in nanopore potentials withdouble extrema of equal height lead to the low selectivity regime (i.e.,V_(n)=1 V, V_(p)=0 V). Alternatively, the nanopore potentials with asingle extrema result in the high selectivity regime, with a singlepotential minimum being selective toward positive (K⁺) ions (i.e.,V_(n)=−1 V, V_(p)=−1 V), whereas a large potential maximum is beingselective toward negative (Cl⁻) ions (i.e., V_(n)=1 V, V_(p)=1 V).

Accordingly, current rectification and filtering are two differentregimes corresponding to two different charge states of the p-nmembrane, which can be tuned by electrically biasing the p-n layers.More generally, the p-n membrane can be used for separation of chargedspecies, controlled injection, release, and blockade of chargedmolecules and ions, thereby minimizing in a very basic way the operationof voltage gated biological channels in cells. The p-n nanopore devicealso provides an opportunity to trap, stretch, and effectively slow downDNA translocation in the pore, thus rising the resolution of theproposed nanopore sequencing device [3,4].

It is known that a biological channel in a cell membrane can beelectrically asymmetric with respect to the membrane plane to performsome form of selectivity or rectification. Similarly, an artificialnanopore with asymmetric electrical potential profile (whether it comesfrom asymmetry in pore geometry, surface charge distribution, or both)in a nanopore can produce ion current rectification through the porewith applied electrolyte bias. In the present disclosure it has beenshown that unlike conical nanopores with predefined rectifyingproperties [12,19], nanopores in a p-n membrane can be tunedelectrically from ohmic behavior to any desirable rectification and to acomplete blockade of the total ionic current without the need for buffersolution replacement or membrane treatment. Simultaneously it canperform as an ion filter with the possibility of filtering ions ofeither sign.

Vlassiouk and Siwy and Karnik et al. [20,21] discuss the use of singlenanopores decorated with fixed local positive charges as a nanofluidic“diode” and ion current rectifier. While these configurations providerectification, additional flexibility can be obtained via manipulationof the solution pH once the surface charge is deposited or via chemicalmodification of the membrane to invert the I-V curves.

From the foregoing descriptions, it would be evident to an artisan withordinary skill in the art that the aforementioned embodiments can bemodified, reduced, or enhanced without departing from the scope andspirit of the claims described below. For example, in anotherillustrative embodiment a Si-membrane can contain a nanopore immersed inan electrolytic transport bi-cell. The cells on each side of themembrane can contain a volume of KC1 electrolyte and an electrodepositioned at 1 mm from the membrane.

FIG. 8 illustrates schematically the solid-state nanopore device where apotential difference between the electrodes in each cell drives the ioncurrent through the nanopore. The solid-state membrane is very thin (≈10nm) and made of heavily doped polysilicon. A nanopore of diametersmaller or equal to 2 nm is etched through the membrane using a tightlyfocused, high-energy electron beam to sputter atoms [26]. As aconsequence, the nanopore has the shape of two inverted cones. Theprinciple of operation is simple: by applying a positive (negative)potential difference between the poly-silicon and the electrolyte,negative (positive) ions are attracted into the nanopore and positive(negative) ions are repelled and thereby modulating selectively theconductance of the respective ions.

3D Self-Consistent Model

A simulation volume can be defined by focusing on the pore region whichis the active region of the device for which a schematic cross-sectionof the idealized device is shown on FIG. 8. Several specific coordinatescan be denoted (Y_(c), Y₁), for which the mobility profiles aredisplayed in subsequent figures. The system can consist of a thin layerof heavily doped n⁺-Si with a doping concentration N_(d) ⁺=2×10²⁰ cm⁻³surrounded by a thin 2 Å layer of negative charge with volume densityN_(surface)=2×10²¹ cm⁻³ as a result of the etching process. Theelectrolyte charge can originate from K⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. At roomtemperature the molecules can be fully ionized. Recently, Eisenberg etal. investigating transport in ion channels using semiconductor deviceformalism showed that their treatment is fully reliable to account forexperimental results. In the present disclosure, the electrolyte can beconsidered as a continuum and the semiconductor equation formalism canbe used to model its electrical properties as well as those of thesilicon membrane. Hence, the system consists of two material regionsdefined by their relative permittivity, i.e., ∈_(Si)=11.7 for theSi-membrane and ∈_(solution)=78 for the solution. Although the localpermittivity can vary from 78 to 1 depending whether the water istotally excluded or not of the nanopore in this analysis, any spatialvariation of C_(solution) can be neglected. In this framework, the KC1solution is assumed to be an intrinsic semiconductor. In the presence ofan electrostatic potential φ (r), the ion concentrations [Cl⁻] (r) and[K⁺] (r) obey Boltzmann Statistics:

$\begin{matrix}{{\lbrack K^{+} \rbrack(r)} = {\lbrack K^{+} \rbrack_{0}{\exp\lbrack \frac{q\;{\phi(r)}}{k_{B}T} \rbrack}}} & (1) \\{{{\lbrack {Cl}^{-} \rbrack(r)} = {\lbrack {Cl}^{-} \rbrack_{0}{\exp\lbrack {- \frac{q\;{\phi(r)}}{k_{B}T}} \rbrack}}},} & (2)\end{matrix}$where [K⁺]₀ and [Cl^(−]) ₀ are the equilibrium concentrations, T thetemperature and k_(B) the Boltzmann constant. The net ionic chargedensity in the solution is:ρ_(solution) =q{[K⁺](r)−[Cl⁻](r)}.  (3)

In the Si-layer, the carriers are degenerate, and their distributionsfollow the Fermi-Dirac distribution. The local density of charges in thesemiconductor region is given by:ρ_(solid-state)(r)=q{N _(d) ⁺(r)−N _(s) ⁻(r)+ρ(r)−n(r)},  (4)where N_(d) ⁺ is the fully ionized donor density and N_(s) ⁻ is thefixed surface charge. Poisson's equation,

$\begin{matrix}{{{\overset{->}{\nabla}{\cdot ( {{\varepsilon(r)}{\overset{->}{\nabla}\;{\phi(r)}}} )}} = {- {\rho(r)}}},} & (5)\end{matrix}$is solved self-consistently by a multigrid approach on the whole deviceunder investigation. The grid spacing ranges from 4 Å to 0.5 Å as to beless than the Debye length. Dirichlet boundary conditions can be assumedon top and bottom bias gate region and Neumann boundary conditionelsewhere. With no applied voltage, Fermi level in the whole device areset to zero, but when a voltage V_(SE) is applied between thesemiconductor and the electrolyte, their respective quasi-fermi levelsE_(f silicon) and E_(f electrolyte) are split according to:E _(f silicon) −E _(f electrolyte) =−qV _(SE).  (6)

FIGS. 9A and 9B display both cation and anion concentrations forV₀=V_(SE)=0. FIGS. 9C and 9D show the corresponding potential profilesalong respectively Y_(c) (red curve) and Y₁ (blue curve). On FIG. 9A, itcan be observed that the depletion layer (positive N_(D) ⁺ charge, darkblue of FIG. 9A) in the n⁺-region running along the semiconductormembrane, which inverts the ionic population (Cl⁻ dominant) along theslanted part of the nanopore (dark red in FIG. 9A and green in FIG. 9B).At the tip and the wide opening of the pore, cations are attracted closeto the semiconductor surface due to the negative surface charge (darkred in FIG. 9A), while anions are strongly repelled (green and yellow inFIG. 9B). The potential variation along the Y-direction is relativelyweak because of the strong screening provided by the high ionconcentration. It is sufficient, however to distinguish inhomogeneousanion and cation distributions in the nanopore. On FIG. 9C the potentialminimum at the pore center followed by two maxima is due to theparticular double conic shape of the pore. On FIG. 9D the smallervariation is at Y_(c), in the pore constriction, as expected.

Recent experimental data indicate the ion conductance decreases withpore radii due to the surface roughness, which implies ion mobilitiesvary spatially inside the nanopore. A phenomeno-logical model can beused for the mobility of each type of ions to ensure it vanishes on thenanopore wall i.e.,

$\begin{matrix}{{{\mu_{a,c}(r)} = {\mu_{a_{o}c_{o}}\{ {1 - {\exp\lbrack \frac{- {{r - {R(y)}}}^{\gamma_{a,c}}}{\delta_{a,c}^{\gamma_{a,c}}} \rbrack}} \}}},} & (7)\end{matrix}$

Here, the subscripts a and c refer to anions and cations, respectively,μ_(a0,c0) is the ionic bulk mobility, r is the radial distance from thecenter of the pore, R(y) is the pore radius at ordinate y, δ and γ aretwo fitting parameters that account for the decay of the mobility nearthe pore wall. It can be assumed that δ and γ are the same for both Cl⁻and K⁺ because the bulk mobility for cations and anions is practicallythe same i.e., μ_(a0)=7.91×10⁻⁸ m²V⁻¹s⁻¹, μ_(c0)=7.12×10⁻⁸ m²V⁻¹s⁻¹Specifically:

-   -   δ is a characteristic length that accounts for the reduction of        ion mobility due to the presence of the solid-state surface in        the nanopore. Hence, for r=0 and R=5 Å, if we choose γ=4 and δ=8        Å,

$\mu_{a,c} \approx {\mu_{{a\; 0},{c\; 0}}( \frac{R}{\delta} )}^{\gamma}$and the mobility is reduced by 85% compared with the bulk values, whichis consistent with existing data [27]. FIG. 10A displays the mobilityprofile along the Y_(c) direction (FIG. 8) in the narrowest region ofthe device as δ is varied. It is seen that as δ increases μ_(a,c) (r=0)decreases.

-   -   γ accounts for the rate of decrease of the counterion mobility        near the surface. Hence, for |r−R|=∈≈0,

 - ⅆ μ a , c ⅆ r ∝ 2 ⁢ ⁢ γ - 1and μ_(a,c) ∝ ∈^(γ). FIG. 10B shows the mobility profile along the Y₁direction (FIG. 8) for different values of γ. It is seen that themobility variation is smoother in the vicinity surface as γ increases(i.e.,

$\frac{\mathbb{d}\mu_{a,c}}{\mathbb{d}r}$is small).

The potential variation can be modeled through the nanopore with thefollowing analytical expression, which has been shown to be valid frommolecular dynamics in nanopore [28]:

$\begin{matrix}{{{V(y)} = {\frac{V_{o}}{\pi}{\tan^{- 1}( {y/L_{eff}} )}}},} & (8)\end{matrix}$where V₀ is the external voltage across the device driving the ionsthrough the nanopore and L_(eff) is a characteristic length (not thechannel length) so that the potential achieves its electrode values aty=[−L_(y)/2, L_(y)/2] where L_(y) is the channel length, with non-zeroelectric field at the electrodes. An approximation can be made thatreservoir resistance is negligible in comparison with nanoporeresistance and the potential in the reservoir is mostly constant.

Considering both anion density current and cation density current andneglecting the diffusion current, the current density for each ion typeis given by:J_(a)=qμ_(a)α∇φ  (9)J_(c)=qμ_(c)c∇φ  (10)J=J _(a) +J _(c)  (11)where μ_(a) and μ_(c) are the anion and cation mobility, respectively.Assuming no recombination inside the pore, it follows that∇J_(a,c)=0,  (12)which by using the divergence theorem, implies that the current isconstant through the nanopore. Due to the one dimensional nature of theexternal potential (8), this condition (12) is not fully satisfied [22].The current can be spatially average through the nanopore to eliminatethe slight J-variations due to the slanted geometry of the nanopore:

$\begin{matrix}{{\langle I_{a,c} \rangle = {\frac{1}{L}{\int_{L/2}^{{- L}/2}\ {{\mathbb{d}y}{\int{\int_{S{(y)}}{{J_{a,c}(r)}\ {\mathbb{d}S}}}}}}}},} & (13)\end{matrix}$Here L is the length of the pore and S(y) is the nanopore cross sectionat ordinate y. In this context, each ion conductance in the nanopore canbe defined asG _(a,c) =

J _(a,c)

/V _(o).  (14)

At zero electrolyte-membrane bias V_(SE), there is predominance ofcations inside the pore due to the presence of the negative charge onthe nanopore wall irrespectively of the pore size and electrolyteconcentration. When varying V_(SE), the ion concentration inside thepore changes according to the voltage magnitude and its polarity. FIGS.11A-D show the average volumic concentrations for both K₊ and Cl⁻ ionsdefined as

$\begin{matrix}{{n_{avg} = \frac{\int{\int{\int{{n(r)}{\mathbb{d}r}}}}}{V_{pore}}},} & (15)\end{matrix}$for various pore shapes, surface charges on the semiconductor andelectrolyte concentrations as functions of V_(SE) at V₀=0. Here V_(pore)is the volume of water inside the pore and n(r) the ion concentration atposition r. Equation 15 directly provides the number of ions inside thepore since V_(pore) is only dependent on the nanopore geometry. Thecation concentration gain can be denoted as

$\beta_{c}^{+} = \frac{\lbrack K^{+} \rbrack}{\lbrack {Cl}^{-} \rbrack}$and the cation conductance gain as

$\beta_{G}^{+} = \frac{G_{c}}{G_{a}}$(The corresponding anion gains are the inverse of these quantities). Forall four cases, the respective ion concentrations change monotonicallywith applied voltage. Hence, when the voltage V_(SE) is sufficientlynegative, cations are predominant in the nanopore, while at highpositive voltages, the situation is reversed and anions are thepredominant species. The turning voltage V_(T) ^(c) can be defined asV _(T) ^(c) =V _(SE)(n _(avg) ^(a) =n _(avg) ^(c)),  (16)i.e. when the average volumic concentrations for cations and anionsequalize. In the case of an ideal nanopore without surface and bulkcharge, the turning voltage V_(T) ^(c) is zero, but for a semiconductormembrane, V_(T) ^(c) depends on the surface charge, semiconductor dopingconcentration, and nanopore shape. For a surface charge of −0.064 C m⁻²(FIG. 11A), V_(T) ^(c) is around 0.25 V in our structure. FIG. 11B showsthe ion concentration profiles for a membrane with a higher donorconcentration, which results in a larger depletion charge, repellingcations in the pore and shifting V_(T) ^(c) to negative V_(SE) values.However, the quantitative behavior of the concentration curves remainsroughly the same, varying within similar values for the same voltagerange. Therefore the cation concentration gain β_(c) ⁺ has practicallythe same profile as FIG. 11A inset. Changes in the surface charge do notmodify qualitatively this behavior but tends to shift V_(T) ^(c) towardspositive values as the V_(SE) potential (applied to the semiconductor)is now screened by the large negative surface charge (FIG. 11C).Lowering the electrolyte concentration improves the ion selectivity ofthe pore: indeed, greater concentration gain β_(c) ⁺ is achieved forlower electrolyte concentrations (FIGS. 11A-D insets). This effect isdue to a longer Debye length for which the double layers on each side ofthe nanopore overlap over the whole inner volume, while for higherelectrolyte concentrations resulting in a smaller Debye length, doublelayer overlap occurs only in the narrowest region of the pore. One alsonotices that the average volumic concentration is never zero for bothtypes of ions because of edge effects, i.e. at both extremities of thenanopore, where the influence of the voltage between the electrolyte andthe semiconductor is weak and where both the anions and cationsconcentrations in these nanopore regions rapidly reach bulk values.

FIGS. 12A-D show the cation and anion conductance variations as afunction of V_(SE) for the same parameters as in FIGS. 11A-D. As for theion concentration variations versus V_(SE), we can define a conductanceturning voltage V_(T) ^(G)=V_(SE)(G_(a)=G_(c)), for which the anionconductance and the cation conductance equalize. As seen in FIG. 12A,for a surface charge of −0.064 C m⁻², V_(T) ^(G)≈0.35 V which isdifferent from V_(T) ^(c) for the same conditions. This difference ismainly due to the mobility profiles which do not coincide with the ionconcentration profiles inside the nanopore. Furthermore, cation bulkmobility is 10% smaller than the anion one, also resulting in a shift ofV_(T) ^(G) towards negative voltage. High doping concentration in then⁺-membrane shifts V_(T) ^(G) towards negative values because thepositive charges in the depletion layer overcomes the influence of thenegative surface charge (FIG. 12B). The filter selectivity can bedefined as

$S = {\frac{{G_{c} - G_{a}}}{G_{c} + G_{a}} = {{\frac{B_{G} - 1}{B_{G} + 1}}.}}$

When S≈1, either G_(a) or G_(c) is zero, and so the nanopore allows onlyone type of ions to cross the membrane as in a perfect filter. If S≈0,then G_(c)≈G_(a) and the nanopore does not discriminate between bothtypes of ions, and behaves like a passive channel between tworeservoirs. For both FIGS. 12A and 12B, a conductance gain β_(G) ⁺≈1.3and a maximum selectivity S_(max)≈0.15 are achieved. Such a lowefficiency can be explained by side effects at the opening regions ofthe pore where ions are not affected by the voltage differences appliedbetween the semiconductor and the electrolyte and ions behave as in abulk solution. FIG. 12C displays the conductance curves for highersurface charge (−0.096 C m⁻²), resulting in a V_(T) ^(G) increase due tothe negative surface charge that tends to attract more cations thananions in the nanopore. Both gain and selectivity remains the same forincreasing surface charges. For a lower concentration [K⁺]₀=[C1⁻]₀=0.1 M(FIG. 12D), two phenomena arise: first the conductance for both cationsand anions decreases due to the fact that less ions are present in thesolution; second, greater conductance gain β_(G) ⁺≈23 and a maximumselectivity S_(max)≈0.92 are achieved, due to the vanishing edgeeffects. Indeed, the Debye length λ_(D) is now comparable to thesmallest diameter in our device (≈10 Å), and then double layer overlapoccurs in most of the nanopore and not only at its bottle neck. Hence,by decreasing the electrolyte concentration or the nanopore diameter ofthe nanopore, the selectivity of the ion filter is greatly improved.

It should be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art from theforegoing embodiments that other suitable modifications can be appliedto the present disclosure. Accordingly, the reader is directed to theclaims for a fuller understanding of the breadth and scope of thepresent disclosure.

The illustrations of embodiments described herein are intended toprovide a general understanding of the structure of various embodiments,and they are not intended to serve as a complete description of all theelements and features of apparatus and systems that might make use ofthe structures described herein. Many other embodiments will be apparentto those of skill in the art upon reviewing the above description. Otherembodiments may be utilized and derived therefrom, such that structuraland logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing fromthe scope of this disclosure. Figures are also merely representationaland may not be drawn to scale. Certain proportions thereof may beexaggerated, while others may be minimized. Accordingly, thespecification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative ratherthan a restrictive sense.

Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred toherein, individually and/or collectively, by the term “invention” merelyfor convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope ofthis application to any single invention or inventive concept if morethan one is in fact disclosed. Thus, although specific embodiments havebeen illustrated and described herein, it should be appreciated that anyarrangement calculated to achieve the same purpose may be substitutedfor the specific embodiments shown. This disclosure is intended to coverany and all adaptations or variations of various embodiments.Combinations of the above embodiments, and other embodiments notspecifically described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in theart upon reviewing the above description.

The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R.§1.72(b), requiring an abstract that will allow the reader to quicklyascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted withthe understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit thescope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing DetailedDescription, it can be seen that various features are grouped togetherin a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure.This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting anintention that the claimed embodiments require more features than areexpressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claimsreflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of asingle disclosed embodiment. Thus the following claims are herebyincorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing onits own as a separately claimed subject matter.

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1. A solid-state selector, comprising: a vessel for carrying a liquidmedium with one or more molecules surrounded by ions; a solid stateconductive structure having one or more through-holes, wherein each ofthe one or more through-holes has a double conical shape, wherein thesolid state conductive structure has first and second layers, whereinthe first layer is doped with a p-type impurity, and wherein the secondlayer is doped with a n-type impurity; a first voltage source coupled tothe first layer doped with the p-type impurity; and a second voltagesource coupled to the second layer doped with the n-type impurity,wherein the first and second voltage sources selectively stimulate atleast one of the ions, the one or more molecules, or both to control aflow of the one or more molecules through the one or more through-holes.2. The solid state selector of claim 1, wherein the liquid mediumcorresponds to an electrolyte, and wherein the solid state selectorcomprises first and second electrodes disposed in the electrolyte tocontrol ionic current.
 3. The solid state selector of claim 1, whereinthe impurities correspond to at least one of a p-type and n-typeimpurity.
 4. The solid state selector of claim 1, wherein the ionscomprise at least one of cations and anions.
 5. The solid state selectorof claim 4, wherein a variance in voltage applied by the first voltagesource or the second voltage source causes an inverse relation between aconcentration of anions and cations passing through the one or morethrough-holes.
 6. The solid state selector of claim 5, wherein one ormore voltages applied by the first voltage source or the second voltagesource causes an equal concentration of anions and cations passingthrough the one or more through-holes.
 7. The solid state selector ofclaim 4, wherein increasing a voltage applied by the first voltagesource or the second voltage source according to a positive polaritystimulates anions to pass through the one or more through-holes andrepels cations from passing through the one or more through-holes. 8.The solid state selector of claim 4, wherein decreasing the voltageapplied by the first voltage source or the second voltage sourceaccording to a negative polarity stimulates cations to pass through theone or more through-holes and repels anions from passing through the oneor more through-holes.
 9. The solid state selector of claim 1, whereinthe solid state conductive structure comprises a semiconductorsubstrate.
 10. The solid state selector of claim 1, wherein the one ormore through-holes each comprise an aperture.
 11. The solid stateselector of claim 1, wherein the one or more through-holes each comprisea slit.
 12. The solid state selector of claim 1, wherein the one or morethrough-holes each comprise a pore.
 13. The solid state selector ofclaim 1, wherein the one or more through-holes is characterized by anopening less than 30 nanometers.
 14. The solid state selector of claim1, comprising a transport event pulse detector having at least oneconductor coupled to the solid state conductive structure, wherein theone or more molecules passing through the one or more through-holescause a sequence of transport event pulses detected by the transportevent pulse detector, and wherein said sequence of transport eventpulses defines in whole or in part a chemical composition.
 15. The solidstate selector of claim 14, wherein the chemical composition comprises abiomolecule.
 16. The solid state selector of claim 15, wherein thebiomolecule comprises one of a single-stranded Deoxyribonucleic Acid(DNA), single-stranded Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), and a protein.
 17. Thesolid state selector of claim 1, wherein a voltage applied by the firstvoltage source or the second voltage source selectively stimulates ionsto pass through the one or more through-holes according to at least oneof mobility, charge and size of said ions.
 18. The solid state selectorof claim 1, wherein the solid state selector corresponds to at least oneof an ion filter and molecular filter.
 19. The solid state selector ofclaim 1, wherein the solid state selector corresponds to a geneticsensor.
 20. The solid-state selector of claims 1, wherein the solidstate conductive structure rectifies ionic current through the one ormore through-holes.
 21. A solid-state selector, comprising: a vessel forcarrying a liquid medium with one or more molecules surrounded by ions;a solid state conductive structure comprising first and second layershaving one or more through-holes therethrough, wherein the first layeris doped with an n-type impurity, and wherein the second layer is dopedwith a p-type impurity; a first voltage source coupled to a first layerof the solid state conductive structure doped with the n-type impurity;and a second voltage source coupled to a second layer of the solid stateconductive structure doped with the p-type impurity, wherein the firstand second voltage sources selectively stimulate the ions surroundingthe one or more molecules to control the one or more molecules throughthe one or more through-holes.
 22. The solid-state selector of claims21, wherein the solid state conductive structure rectifies ionic currentthrough the one or more through-holes.
 23. A solid-state selector,comprising: a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with one or moremolecules surrounded by ions; a diode having one or more through-holesextending between first and second layers of the diode, wherein thediode is positioned within the liquid medium of the vessel, wherein thefirst layer is doped with a p-type impurity, and wherein the secondlayer is doped with a n-type impurity; a first voltage source coupled tothe first layer of the diode; and a second voltage source coupled to thesecond layer of the diode; wherein the first and second voltage sourcesbias the diode to selectively stimulate the ions surrounding the one ormore molecules to control a movement of the one or more moleculesthrough the one or more through-holes.
 24. The solid-state selector ofclaims 23, wherein the diode rectifies ionic current through the one ormore through-holes.
 25. A solid-state selector, comprising: a vessel forcarrying a liquid medium with one or more molecules surrounded by ions;a plurality of diodes coupled to each other in series with collinearthrough-holes extending between first and second surfaces layers of eachdiode, wherein the first layer is doped with a p-type impurity, andwherein the second layer is doped with a n-type impurity, and whereinthe plurality of diodes are positioned within the liquid medium of thevessel; a first voltage sources coupled to the first layer of each ofthe plurality of diodes; and a second voltage source coupled to thesecond layer of each of the plurality of diodes, wherein the first andsecond voltage sources bias at least a portion of the plurality ofdiodes to selectively stimulate the ions surrounding the one or moremolecules to control a movement of the one or more moleculespass-through the through-holes of said plurality of diodes.
 26. Thesolid-state selector of claims 25, wherein the plurality of diodesrectify ionic current through the through-holes.
 27. The solid-stateselector of claim 25, wherein at least a portion of the plurality ofdiodes have an equivalent or similar chemical composition, and whereinthe portion of the plurality of diodes coupled in series have ahomojunction or nearly homojunction interface between them.
 28. Thesolid-state selector of claim 25, wherein at least a portion of theplurality of diodes have dissimilar chemical compositions, and whereineach of the plurality of diodes coupled in series have a hetereojunctioninterface between them.
 29. The solid-state selector of claim 25,wherein at least one pair of the plurality of diodes has an intermediatecomposition connecting said pair of diodes.
 30. The solid-state selectorof claim 29, wherein the intermediate composition comprises aninsulator.
 31. The solid-state selector of claim 30, wherein theinsulator comprises a dielectric.
 32. A solid-state device, comprising:a vessel for carrying a liquid medium with anions and cations; a solidstate conductive structure having one or more through-holes extendingbetween two layers of the solid state conductive structure, wherein thefirst layer is doped with an n-type first impurity, and wherein thesecond layer is doped with a p-type second impurity, and wherein thefirst and second impurities differ in their conductivity; a firstvoltage source coupled to the first layer of the solid state conductivestructure; and a second voltage source coupled to the second layer ofthe solid state conductive structure, wherein the first and secondvoltage sources selectively control the anions and the cations in avicinity of the one or more through-holes.